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EJAAN DALAM BAHASA INDONESIA

2008-11-02T05:18:00.000-08:00

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Pada tahun 1901 diadakan pembakuan ejaan bahasa Indonesia yang pertama kali oleh Prof. Charles van Ophuijsen dibantu oleh Engku Nawawi gelar Sutan Makmur dan Moh. Taib Sultan Ibrahim. Hasil pembakuan mereka yang dikenal dengan Ejaan Van Ophuijsen ditulis dalam buku yang berjudul Kitab Logat Melajoe. Dalam kitab itu dimuat sistem ejaan Latin untuk bahasa Melayu di Indonesia.
Van Ophuijsen adalah seorang ahli bahasa berkebangsaan Belanda. Ia pernah jadi inspektur sekolah di maktab perguruan Bukittinggi, Sumatera Barat, kemudian menjadi profesor bahasa Melayu di Universitas Leiden, Belanda. Setelah menerbitkan Kitab Logat Melajoe, van Ophuijsen kemudian menerbitkan Maleische Spraakkunst (1910). Buku ini kemudian diterjemahkan oleh T.W. Kamil dengan judul Tata Bahasa Melayu dan menjadi panduan bagi pemakai bahasa Melayu di Indonesia.
Ejaan ini akhirnya digantikan oleh Ejaan Republik pada 17 Maret 1947
Pada 23 Mei 1972, sebuah pernyataan bersama telah ditandatangani oleh Menteri Pelajaran Malaysia pada masa itu, Tun Hussien Onn dan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia, Mashuri. Pernyataan bersama tersebut mengandung persetujuan untuk melaksanakan asas yang telah disepakati oleh para ahli dari kedua negara tentang Ejaan Baru dan Ejaan Yang Disempurnakan. Pada tanggal 16 Agustus 1972, berdasarkan Keputusan Presiden No. 57, Tahun 1972, berlakulah sistem ejaan Latin (Rumi dalam istilah bahasa Melayu Malaysia) bagi bahasa Melayu dan bahasa Indonesia. Di Malaysia ejaan baru bersama ini dirujuk sebagai Ejaan Rumi Bersama (ERB).
Selanjutnya Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan menyebarluaskan buku panduan pemakaian berjudul "Pedoman Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Disempurnakan".
Pada tanggal 12 Oktober 1972, Panitia Pengembangan Bahasa Indonesia, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, menerbitkan buku "Pedoman Umum Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Disempurnakan" dengan penjelasan kaidah penggunaan yang lebih luas. Setelah itu, Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan dengan surat putusannya No. 0196/1975 memberlakukan "Pedoman Umum Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Disempurnakan dan Pedoman Umum Pembentukan Istilah".
Perbedaan-perbedaan antara EYD dan ejaan sebelumnya adalah:
'tj' menjadi 'c' : tjutji → cuci
'dj' menjadi 'j' : djarak → jarak
'j' menjadi 'y' : sajang → sayang
'nj' menjadi 'ny' : njamuk → nyamuk
'sj' menjadi 'sy' : sjarat → syarat
'ch' menjadi 'kh' : achir → akhir
Dari Ejaan van Ophuijsen Hingga EYD
1. Ejaan van Ophuijsen
Pada tahun 1901 ejaan bahasa Melayu dengan huruf Latin, yang disebut Ejaan van Ophuijsen, ditetapkan. Ejaan tersebut dirancang oleh van Ophuijsen dibantu oleh Engku Nawawi Gelar Soetan Ma'moer dan Moehammad Taib Soetan Ibrahim. Hal-hal yang menonjol dalam ejaan ini adalah sebagai berikut.
Huruf j untuk menuliskan kata-kata jang, pajah, sajang.
Huruf oe untuk menuliskan kata-kata goeroe, itoe, oemoer.
Tanda diakritik, seperti koma ain dan tanda trema, untuk menuliskan kata-kata ma'moer, 'akal, ta', pa', dinamai'.
2. Ejaan Soewandi
Pada tanggal 19 Maret 1947 ejaan Soewandi diresmikan menggantikan ejaan van Ophuijsen. Ejaan baru itu oleh masyarakat diberi julukan ejaan Republik. Hal-hal yang perlu diketahui sehubungan dengan pergantian ejaan itu adalah sebagai berikut.
Huruf oe diganti dengan u, seperti pada guru, itu, umur.
Bunyi hamzah dan bunyi sentak ditulis dengan k, seperti pada kata-kata tak, pak, maklum, rakjat.
Kata ulang boleh ditulis dengan angka 2, seperti anak2, ber-jalan2, ke-barat2-an.
Awalan di- dan kata depan di kedua-duanya ditulis serangkai dengan kata yang mengikutinya, seperti kata depan di pada dirumah, dikebun, disamakan dengan imbuhan di- pada ditulis, dikarang.
3. Ejaan Melindo
Pada akhir 1959 sidang perutusan Indonesia dan Melayu (Slametmulyana-Syeh Nasir bin Ismail, Ketua) menghasilkan konsep ejaan bersama yang kemudian dikenal dengan nama Ejaan Melindo (Melayu-Indonesia). Perkembangan politik selama tahun-tahun berikutnya mengurungkan peresmian ejaan itu.
Charles Adriaan van Ophuijsen
Charles Adriaan van Ophuijsen (Solok, Sumatra Barat, 1856 - 1917) adalah seorang Belanda yang gemar mempelajari bahasa berbagai suku di Hindia Belanda. Ia bersama Engku Nawawi gelar Soetan Ma'moer dan Moehammad Taib Sutan Ibrahim menyusun ejaan baru untuk mengganti ejaan bahasa Melayu pada 1896. Pedoman tata bahasa yang kemudian dikenal dengan nama Ejaan van Ophuijsen itu resmi diakui pemerintah kolonial pada tahun 1901. Charles pada tahun 1879 menerbitkan buku berjudul Kijkjes in Het Huiselijk Leven Volkdicht (Pengamatan Selintas Kehidupan Kekeluargaan Suku Batak) dan Maleische Spraakkunst (Tata Bahasa Melayu).
Pemerintah kolonial kemudian mengangkatnya menjadi guru besar ilmu bahasa dan kesusasteraan Melayu di Universitas Leiden pada 1904. Charles Adriaan van Ophuijsen meninggal dunia pada 1917.
4. Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Disempurnakan
Pada tanggal 16 Agustus 1972 Presiden Republik Indonesia meresmikan pemakaian Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia. Peresmian ejaan baru itu berdasarkan Putusan Presiden No. 57, Tahun 1972. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan menyebarkan buku kecil yang berjudul Pedoman Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Disempurnakan, sebagai patokan pemakaian ejaan itu.
Karena penuntun itu perlu dilengkapi, Panitia Pengembangan Bahasa Indonesia, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, yang dibentuk oleh Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan dengan surat putusannya tanggal 12 Oktober 1972, No. 156/P/1972 (Amran Halim, Ketua), menyusun buku Pedoman Umum Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Disempurnakan yang berupa pemaparan kaidah ejaan yang lebih luas. Setelah itu, Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan dengan surat putusannya No. 0196/1975 memberlakukan Pedoman Umum Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Disempurnakan dan Pedoman Umum Pembentukan Istilah.
Pada tahun 1987 kedua pedoman tersebut direvisi. Edisi revisi dikuatkan dengan surat Putusan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan No. 0543a/U/1987, tanggal 9 September 1987.
Beberapa hal yang perlu dikemukakan sehubungan dengan Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Disempurnakan adalah sebagai berikut.
1. Perubahan Huruf
Ejaan Soewandi
Ejaan yang Disempurnakan
dj
djalan, djauh
j
jalan, jauh
J
pajung, laju
y
payung, layu
nj
njonja, bunji
ny
nyonya, bunyi
sj
isjarat, masjarakat
sy
isyarat, masyarakat
tj
tjukup, tjutji
c
cukup, cuci
ch
tarich, achir
kh
tarikh, akhir
2. Huruf-huruf di bawah ini, yang sebelumnya sudah terdapat dalam Ejaan Soewandi sebagai unsur pinjaman abjad asing, diresmikan pemakaiannya.
F
maaf, fakir
V
valuta, universitas
Z
zeni, lezat
3. Huruf-huruf q dan x yang lazim digunakan dalam ilmu eksakta tetap dipakai
a : b = p : q Sinar-X
4. Penulisan di- atau ke- sebagai awalan dan di atau ke sebagai kata depan dibedakan, yaitu di- atau ke- sebagai awalan ditulis serangkai dengan kata yang mengikutinya, sedangkan di atau ke sebagai kata depan ditulis terpisah dengan kata yang mengikutinya.
di- (awalan)
di (kata depan)
ditulis
di kampus
dibakar
di rumah
dilempar
di jalan
dipikirkan
di sini
ketua
ke kampus
kekasih
ke luar negeri
kehendak
ke atas
5. Kata ulang ditulis penuh dengan huruf, tidak boleh digunakan angka 2.
anak-anak, berjalan-jalan, meloncat-loncat
Sumber: Cermat Berbahasa Indonesia, Zaenal Arifin dan S. Amran Tasai

MANAJEMEN SEKOLAH : Pengertian, Fungsi dan Bidang Manajemen

2008-09-21T01:02:00.000-07:00

oleh : Akhmad Sudrajat, M.Pd.
A. Pengertian Manajemen Sekolah
Dalam konteks pendidikan, memang masih ditemukan kontroversi dan inkonsistensi dalam penggunaan istilah manajemen. Di satu pihak ada yang tetap cenderung menggunakan istilah manajemen, sehingga dikenal dengan istilah manajemen pendidikan. Di lain pihak, tidak sedikit pula yang menggunakan istilah administrasi sehingga dikenal istilah adminitrasi pendidikan. Dalam studi ini, penulis cenderung untuk mengidentikkan keduanya, sehingga kedua istilah ini dapat digunakan dengan makna yang sama.Selanjutnya, di bawah ini akan disampaikan beberapa pengertian umum tentang manajemen yang disampaikan oleh beberapa ahli. Dari Kathryn . M. Bartol dan David C. Martin yang dikutip oleh A.M. Kadarman SJ dan Jusuf Udaya (1995) memberikan rumusan bahwa :
“Manajemen adalah proses untuk mencapai tujuan – tujuan organisasi dengan melakukan kegiatan dari empat fungsi utama yaitu merencanakan (planning), mengorganisasi (organizing), memimpin (leading), dan mengendalikan (controlling). Dengan demikian, manajemen adalah sebuah kegiatan yang berkesinambungan”.
Sedangkan dari Stoner sebagaimana dikutip oleh T. Hani Handoko (1995) mengemukakan bahwa:
“Manajemen adalah proses perencanaan, pengorganisasian, pengarahan, dan pengawasan usaha-usaha para anggota organisasi dan penggunaan sumber daya-sumber daya organisasi lainnya agar mencapai tujuan organisasi yang telah ditetapkan”.
Secara khusus dalam konteks pendidikan, Djam’an Satori (1980) memberikan pengertian manajemen pendidikan dengan menggunakan istilah administrasi pendidikan yang diartikan sebagai “keseluruhan proses kerjasama dengan memanfaatkan semua sumber personil dan materil yang tersedia dan sesuai untuk mencapai tujuan pendidikan yang telah ditetapkan secara efektif dan efisien”. Sementara itu, Hadari Nawawi (1992) mengemukakan bahwa “administrasi pendidikan sebagai rangkaian kegiatan atau keseluruhan proses pengendalian usaha kerjasama sejumlah orang untuk mencapai tujuan pendidikan secara sistematis yang diselenggarakan di lingkungan tertentu terutama berupa lembaga pendidikan formal”.
Meski ditemukan pengertian manajemen atau administrasi yang beragam, baik yang bersifat umum maupun khusus tentang kependidikan, namun secara esensial dapat ditarik benang merah tentang pengertian manajemen pendidikan, bahwa : (1) manajemen pendidikan merupakan suatu kegiatan; (2) manajemen pendidikan memanfaatkan berbagai sumber daya; dan (3) manajemen pendidikan berupaya untuk mencapai tujuan tertentu.
B. Fungsi Manajemen
Dikemukakan di atas bahwa manajemen pendidikan merupakan suatu kegiatan. Kegiatan dimaksud tak lain adalah tindakan-tindakan yang mengacu kepada fungsi-fungsi manajamen. Berkenaan dengan fungsi-fungsi manajemen ini, H. Siagian (1977) mengungkapkan pandangan dari beberapa ahli, sebagai berikut:
Menurut G.R. Terry terdapat empat fungsi manajemen, yaitu :(1) planning (perencanaan);(2) organizing (pengorganisasian);(3) actuating (pelaksanaan); dan(4) controlling (pengawasan).
Sedangkan menurut Henry Fayol terdapat lima fungsi manajemen, meliputi :(1) planning (perencanaan);(2) organizing (pengorganisasian);(3) commanding (pengaturan);(4) coordinating (pengkoordinasian); dan(5) controlling (pengawasan).
Sementara itu, Harold Koontz dan Cyril O’ Donnel mengemukakan lima fungsi manajemen, mencakup :(1) planning (perencanaan);(2) organizing (pengorganisasian);(3) staffing (penentuan staf);(4) directing (pengarahan); dan(5) controlling (pengawasan).
Selanjutnya, L. Gullick mengemukakan tujuh fungsi manajemen, yaitu :(1) planning (perencanaan);(2) organizing (pengorganisasian);(3) staffing (penentuan staf);(4) directing (pengarahan);(5) coordinating (pengkoordinasian);(6) reporting (pelaporan); dan(7) budgeting (penganggaran).
Untuk memahami lebih jauh tentang fungsi-fungsi manajemen pendidikan, di bawah akan dipaparkan tentang fungsi-fungsi manajemen pendidikan dalam perspektif persekolahan, dengan merujuk kepada pemikiran G.R. Terry, meliputi : (1) perencanaan (planning); (2) pengorganisasian (organizing); (3) pelaksanaan (actuating) dan (4) pengawasan (controlling).
1. Perencanaan (planning)
Perencanaan tidak lain merupakan kegiatan untuk menetapkan tujuan yang akan dicapai beserta cara-cara untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut. Sebagaimana disampaikan oleh Louise E. Boone dan David L. Kurtz (1984) bahwa: planning may be defined as the proses by which manager set objective, asses the future, and develop course of action designed to accomplish these objective. Sedangkan T. Hani Handoko (1995) mengemukakan bahwa :“ Perencanaan (planning) adalah pemilihan atau penetapan tujuan organisasi dan penentuan strategi, kebijaksanaan, proyek, program, prosedur, metode, sistem, anggaran dan standar yang dibutuhkan untuk mencapai tujuan. Pembuatan keputusan banyak terlibat dalam fungsi ini.”
Arti penting perencanaan terutama adalah memberikan kejelasan arah bagi setiap kegiatan, sehingga setiap kegiatan dapat diusahakan dan dilaksanakan seefisien dan seefektif mungkin. T. Hani Handoko mengemukakan sembilan manfaat perencanaan bahwa perencanaan: (a) membantu manajemen untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan perubahan-perubahan lingkungan; (b) membantu dalam kristalisasi persesuaian pada masalah-masalah utama; (c) memungkinkan manajer memahami keseluruhan gambaran; (d) membantu penempatan tanggung jawab lebih tepat; (e) memberikan cara pemberian perintah untuk beroperasi; (f) memudahkan dalam melakukan koordinasi di antara berbagai bagian organisasi; (g) membuat tujuan lebih khusus, terperinci dan lebih mudah dipahami; (h) meminimumkan pekerjaan yang tidak pasti; dan (i) menghemat waktu, usaha dan dana.
Indriyo Gito Sudarmo dan Agus Mulyono (1996) mengemukakan langkah-langkah pokok dalam perencanaan, yaitu :
Penentuan tujuan dengan memenuhi persyaratan sebagai berikut : (a) menggunakan kata-kata yang sederhana, (b) mempunyai sifat fleksibel, (c) mempunyai sifat stabilitas, (d) ada dalam perimbangan sumber daya, dan (e) meliputi semua tindakan yang diperlukan.
Pendefinisian gabungan situasi secara baik, yang meliputi unsur sumber daya manusia, sumber daya alam, dan sumber daya modal.
Merumuskan kegiatan yang akan dilaksanakan secara jelas dan tegas.
Hal senada dikemukakan pula oleh T. Hani Handoko (1995) bahwa terdapat empat tahap dalam perencanaan, yaitu : (a) menetapkan tujuan atau serangkaian tujuan; (b) merumuskan keadaan saat ini; (c) mengidentifikasi segala kemudahan dan hambatan; (d) mengembangkan rencana atau serangkaian kegiatan untuk pencapaian tujuan.Pada bagian lain, Indriyo Gito Sudarmo dan Agus Mulyono (1996) mengemukakan bahwa atas dasar luasnya cakupan masalah serta jangkauan yang terkandung dalam suatu perencanaan, maka perencanaan dapat dibedakan dalam tiga bentuk, yaitu : (1) rencana global yang merupakan penentuan tujuan secara menyeluruh dan jangka panjang, (2) rencana strategis merupakan rencana yang disusun guna menentukan tujuan-tujuan kegiatan atau tugas yang mempunyai arti strategis dan mempunyai dimensi jangka panjang, dan (3) rencana operasional yang merupakan rencana kegiatan-kegiatan yang berjangka pendek guna menopang pencapaian tujuan jangka panjang, baik dalam perencanaan global maupun perencanaan strategis.
Perencanaan strategik akhir-akhir ini menjadi sangat penting sejalan dengan perkembangan lingkungan yang sangat pesat dan sangat sulit diprediksikan, seperti perkembangan teknologi yang sangat pesat, pekerjaan manajerial yang semakin kompleks, dan percepatan perubahan lingkungan eksternal lainnya.Pada bagian lain, T. Hani Handoko memaparkan secara ringkas tentang langkah-langkah dalam penyusunan perencanaan strategik, sebagai berikut:
Penentuan misi dan tujuan, yang mencakup pernyataan umum tentang misi, falsafah dan tujuan. Perumusan misi dan tujuan ini merupakan tanggung jawab kunci manajer puncak. Perumusan ini dipengaruhi oleh nilai-nilai yang dibawakan manajer. Nilai-nilai ini dapat mencakup masalah-masalah sosial dan etika, atau masalah-masalah umum seperti macam produk atau jasa yang akan diproduksi atau cara pengoperasian perusahaan.
Pengembangan profil perusahaan, yang mencerminkan kondisi internal dan kemampuan perusahaan dan merupakan hasil analisis internal untuk mengidentifikasi tujuan dan strategi sekarang, serta memerinci kuantitas dan kualitas sumber daya -sumber daya perusahaan yang tersedia. Profil perusahaan menunjukkan kesuksesan perusahaan di masa lalu dan kemampuannya untuk mendukung pelaksanaan kegiatan sebagai implementasi strategi dalam pencapaian tujuan di masa yang akan datang.
Analisa lingkungan eksternal, dengan maksud untuk mengidentifikasi cara-cara dan dalam apa perubahan-perubahan lingkungan dapat mempengaruhi organisasi. Disamping itu, perusahaan perlu mengidentifikasi lingkungan lebih khusus, seperti para penyedia, pasar organisasi, para pesaing, pasar tenaga kerja dan lembaga-lembaga keuangan, di mana kekuatan-kekuatan ini akan mempengaruhi secara langsung operasi perusahaan.
Meski pendapat di atas lebih menggambarkan perencanaan strategik dalam konteks bisnis, namun secara esensial konsep perencanaan strategik ini dapat diterapkan pula dalam konteks pendidikan, khususnya pada tingkat persekolahan, karena memang pendidikan di Indonesia dewasa ini sedang menghadapi berbagai tantangan internal maupun eksternal, sehingga membutuhkan perencanaan yang benar-benar dapat menjamin sustanabilitas pendidikan itu sendiri.
2. Pengorganisasian (organizing)
Fungsi manajemen berikutnya adalah pengorganisasian (organizing). George R. Terry (1986) mengemukakan bahwa :“Pengorganisasian adalah tindakan mengusahakan hubungan-hubungan kelakuan yang efektif antara orang-orang, sehingga mereka dapat bekerja sama secara efisien, dan memperoleh kepuasan pribadi dalam melaksanakan tugas-tugas tertentu, dalam kondisi lingkungan tertentu guna mencapai tujuan atau sasaran tertentu”.Lousie E. Boone dan David L. Kurtz (1984) mengartikan pengorganisasian : “… as the act of planning and implementing organization structure. It is the process of arranging people and physical resources to carry out plans and acommplishment organizational obtective”.Dari kedua pendapat di atas, dapat dipahami bahwa pengorganisasian pada dasarnya merupakan upaya untuk melengkapi rencana-rencana yang telah dibuat dengan susunan organisasi pelaksananya. Hal yang penting untuk diperhatikan dalam pengorganisasian adalah bahwa setiap kegiatan harus jelas siapa yang mengerjakan, kapan dikerjakan, dan apa targetnya.Berkenaan dengan pengorganisasian ini, Hadari Nawawi (1992) mengemukakan beberapa asas dalam organisasi, diantaranya adalah : (a) organisasi harus profesional, yaitu dengan pembagian satuan kerja yang sesuai dengan kebutuhan; (b) pengelompokan satuan kerja harus menggambarkan pembagian kerja; (c) organisasi harus mengatur pelimpahan wewenang dan tanggung jawab; (d) organisasi harus mencerminkan rentangan kontrol; (e) organisasi harus mengandung kesatuan perintah; dan (f) organisasi harus fleksibel dan seimbang.Ernest Dale seperti dikutip oleh T. Hani Handoko mengemukakan tiga langkah dalam proses pengorganisasian, yaitu : (a) pemerincian seluruh pekerjaan yang harus dilaksanakan untuk mencapai tujuan organisasi; (b) pembagian beban pekerjaan total menjadi kegiatan-kegiatan yang logik dapat dilaksanakan oleh satu orang; dan (c) pengadaan dan pengembangan suatu mekanisme untuk mengkoordinasikan pekerjaan para anggota menjadi kesatuan yang terpadu dan harmonis.
3. Pelaksanaan (actuating)
Dari seluruh rangkaian proses manajemen, pelaksanaan (actuating) merupakan fungsi manajemen yang paling utama. Dalam fungsi perencanaan dan pengorganisasian lebih banyak berhubungan dengan aspek-aspek abstrak proses manajemen, sedangkan fungsi actuating justru lebih menekankan pada kegiatan yang berhubungan langsung dengan orang-orang dalam organisasiDalam hal ini, George R. Terry (1986) mengemukakan bahwa actuating merupakan usaha menggerakkan anggota-anggota kelompok sedemikian rupa hingga mereka berkeinginan dan berusaha untuk mencapai sasaran perusahaan dan sasaran anggota-anggota perusahaan tersebut oleh karena para anggota itu juga ingin mencapai sasaran-sasaran tersebut.Dari pengertian di atas, pelaksanaan (actuating) tidak lain merupakan upaya untuk menjadikan perencanaan menjadi kenyataan, dengan melalui berbagai pengarahan dan pemotivasian agar setiap karyawan dapat melaksanakan kegiatan secara optimal sesuai dengan peran, tugas dan tanggung jawabnya.Hal yang penting untuk diperhatikan dalam pelaksanan (actuating) ini adalah bahwa seorang karyawan akan termotivasi untuk mengerjakan sesuatu jika : (1) merasa yakin akan mampu mengerjakan, (2) yakin bahwa pekerjaan tersebut memberikan manfaat bagi dirinya, (3) tidak sedang dibebani oleh problem pribadi atau tugas lain yang lebih penting, atau mendesak, (4) tugas tersebut merupakan kepercayaan bagi yang bersangkutan dan (5) hubungan antar teman dalam organisasi tersebut harmonis.
4. Pengawasan (controlling)
Pengawasan (controlling) merupakan fungsi manajemen yang tidak kalah pentingnya dalam suatu organisasi. Semua fungsi terdahulu, tidak akan efektif tanpa disertai fungsi pengawasan. Dalam hal ini, Louis E. Boone dan David L. Kurtz (1984) memberikan rumusan tentang pengawasan sebagai : “… the process by which manager determine wether actual operation are consistent with plans”.Sementara itu, Robert J. Mocker sebagaimana disampaikan oleh T. Hani Handoko (1995) mengemukakan definisi pengawasan yang di dalamnya memuat unsur esensial proses pengawasan, bahwa :“Pengawasan manajemen adalah suatu usaha sistematik untuk menetapkan standar pelaksanaan dengan tujuan – tujuan perencanaan, merancang sistem informasi umpan balik, membandingkan kegiatan nyata dengan standar yang telah ditetapkan sebelumnya, menentukan dan mengukur penyimpangan-penyimpangan, serta mengambil tindakan koreksi yang diperlukan untuk menjamin bahwa semua sumber daya perusahaan dipergunakan dengan cara paling efektif dan efisien dalam pencapaian tujuan-tujuan perusahaan.”Dengan demikian, pengawasan merupakan suatu kegiatan yang berusaha untuk mengendalikan agar pelaksanaan dapat berjalan sesuai dengan rencana dan memastikan apakah tujuan organisasi tercapai. Apabila terjadi penyimpangan di mana letak penyimpangan itu dan bagaimana pula tindakan yang diperlukan untuk mengatasinya.Selanjutnya dikemukakan pula oleh T. Hani Handoko bahwa proses pengawasan memiliki lima tahapan, yaitu : (a) penetapan standar pelaksanaan; (b) penentuan pengukuran pelaksanaan kegiatan; (c) pengukuran pelaksanaan kegiatan nyata; (d) pembandingan pelaksanaan kegiatan dengan standar dan penganalisaan penyimpangan-penyimpangan; dan (e) pengambilan tindakan koreksi, bila diperlukan.Fungsi-fungsi manajemen ini berjalan saling berinteraksi dan saling kait mengkait antara satu dengan lainnya, sehingga menghasilkan apa yang disebut dengan proses manajemen. Dengan demikian, proses manajemen sebenarnya merupakan proses interaksi antara berbagai fungsi manajemen.
Dalam perspektif persekolahan, agar tujuan pendidikan di sekolah dapat tercapai secara efektif dan efisien, maka proses manajemen pendidikan memiliki peranan yang amat vital. Karena bagaimana pun sekolah merupakan suatu sistem yang di dalamnya melibatkan berbagai komponen dan sejumlah kegiatan yang perlu dikelola secara baik dan tertib. Sekolah tanpa didukung proses manajemen yang baik, boleh jadi hanya akan menghasilkan kesemrawutan lajunya organisasi, yang pada gilirannya tujuan pendidikan pun tidak akan pernah tercapai secara semestinya.Dengan demikian, setiap kegiatan pendidikan di sekolah harus memiliki perencanaan yang jelas dan realisitis, pengorganisasian yang efektif dan efisien, pengerahan dan pemotivasian seluruh personil sekolah untuk selalu dapat meningkatkan kualitas kinerjanya, dan pengawasan secara berkelanjutan.
C. Bidang Kegiatan Pendidikan
Berbicara tentang kegiatan pendidikan, di bawah ini beberapa pandangan dari para ahli tentang bidang-bidang kegiatan yang menjadi wilayah garapan manajemen pendidikan. Ngalim Purwanto (1986) mengelompokkannya ke dalam tiga bidang garapan yaitu :
Administrasi material, yaitu kegiatan yang menyangkut bidang-bidang materi/ benda-benda, seperti ketatausahaan sekolah, administrasi keuangan, gedung dan alat-alat perlengkapan sekolah dan lain-lain.
Administrasi personal, mencakup di dalamnya administrasi personal guru dan pegawai sekolah, juga administrasi murid. Dalam hal ini masalah kepemimpinan dan supervisi atau kepengawasan memegang peranan yang sangat penting.
Administrasi kurikulum, seperti tugas mengajar guru-guru, penyusunan sylabus atau rencana pengajaran tahunan, persiapan harian dan mingguan dan sebagainya.
Hal serupa dikemukakan pula oleh M. Rifa’i (1980) bahwa bidang-bidang administrasi pendidikan terdiri dari :
Bidang kependidikan atau bidang edukatif, yang menyangkut kurikulum, metode dan cara mengajar, evaluasi dan sebagainya.
Bidang personil, yang mencakup unsur-unsur manusia yang belajar, yang mengajar, dan personil lain yang berhubungan dengan kegiatan belajar mengajar.
Bidang alat dan keuangan, sebagai alat-alat pembantu untuk melancarkan siatuasi belajar mengajar dan untuk mencapai tujuan pendidikan sebaik-baiknya.
Sementara itu, Thomas J. Sergiovani sebagimana dikutip oleh Uhar Suharsaputra (2002) mengemukakan delapan bidang administrasi pendidikan, mencakup : (1) instruction and curriculum development; (2) pupil personnel; (3) community school leadership; (4) staff personnel; (5) school plant; (6) school trasportation; (7) organization and structure dan (8) School finance and business management.
Di lain pihak, Direktorat Pendidikan Menengah Umum Depdiknas (1999) telah menerbitkan buku Panduan Manajemen Sekolah, yang didalamnya mengetengahkan bidang-bidang kegiatan manajemen pendidikan, meliputi: (1) manajemen kurikulum; (2) manajemen personalia; (3) manajemen kesiswaan; (4) manajemen keuangan; (5) manajemen perawatan preventif sarana dan prasarana sekolah.
Dari beberapa pendapat di atas, agaknya yang perlu digarisbawahi yaitu mengenai bidang administrasi pendidikan yang dikemukakan oleh Thomas J. Sergiovani. Dalam konteks pendidikan di Indonesia saat ini, pandangan Thomas J. Sergiovani kiranya belum sepenuhnya dapat dilaksanakan, terutama dalam bidang school transportation dan business management. Dengan alasan tertentu, kebijakan umum pendidikan nasional belum dapat menjangkau ke arah sana. Kendati demikian, dalam kerangka peningkatkan mutu pendidikan, ke depannya pemikiran ini sangat menarik untuk diterapkan menjadi kebijakan pendidikan di Indonesia.
Merujuk kepada kebijakan Direktorat Pendidikan Menengah Umum Depdiknas dalam buku Panduan Manajemen Sekolah, berikut ini akan diuraikan secara ringkas tentang bidang-bidang kegiatan pendidikan di sekolah, yang mencakup :
1. Manajemen kurikulum
Manajemen kurikulum merupakan subtansi manajemen yang utama di sekolah. Prinsip dasar manajemen kurikulum ini adalah berusaha agar proses pembelajaran dapat berjalan dengan baik, dengan tolok ukur pencapaian tujuan oleh siswa dan mendorong guru untuk menyusun dan terus menerus menyempurnakan strategi pembelajarannya. Tahapan manajemen kurikulum di sekolah dilakukan melalui empat tahap : (a) perencanaan; (b) pengorganisasian dan koordinasi; (c) pelaksanaan; dan (d) pengendalian.Dalam konteks Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP), Tita Lestari (2006) mengemukakan tentang siklus manajemen kurikulum yang terdiri dari empat tahap :
Tahap perencanaan; meliputi langkah-langkah sebagai : (1) analisis kebutuhan; (2) merumuskan dan menjawab pertanyaan filosofis; (3) menentukan disain kurikulum; dan (4) membuat rencana induk (master plan): pengembangan, pelaksanaan, dan penilaian.
Tahap pengembangan; meliputi langkah-langkah : (1) perumusan rasional atau dasar pemikiran; (2) perumusan visi, misi, dan tujuan; (3) penentuan struktur dan isi program; (4) pemilihan dan pengorganisasian materi; (5) pengorganisasian kegiatan pembelajaran; (6) pemilihan sumber, alat, dan sarana belajar; dan (7) penentuan cara mengukur hasil belajar.
Tahap implementasi atau pelaksanaan; meliputi langkah-langkah: (1) penyusunan rencana dan program pembelajaran (Silabus, RPP: Rencana Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran); (2) penjabaran materi (kedalaman dan keluasan); (3) penentuan strategi dan metode pembelajaran; (4) penyediaan sumber, alat, dan sarana pembelajaran; (5) penentuan cara dan alat penilaian proses dan hasil belajar; dan (6) setting lingkungan pembelajaran
Tahap penilaian; terutama dilakukan untuk melihat sejauhmana kekuatan dan kelemahan dari kurikulum yang dikembangkan, baik bentuk penilaian formatif maupun sumatif. Penilailain kurikulum dapat mencakup Konteks, input, proses, produk (CIPP) : Penilaian konteks: memfokuskan pada pendekatan sistem dan tujuan, kondisi aktual, masalah-masalah dan peluang. Penilaian Input: memfokuskan pada kemampuan sistem, strategi pencapaian tujuan, implementasi design dan cost benefit dari rancangan. Penilaian proses memiliki fokus yaitu pada penyediaan informasi untuk pembuatan keputusan dalam melaksanakan program. Penilaian product berfokus pada mengukur pencapaian proses dan pada akhir program (identik dengan evaluasi sumatif)
2. Manajemen Kesiswaan
Dalam manajemen kesiswaan terdapat empat prinsip dasar, yaitu : (a) siswa harus diperlakukan sebagai subyek dan bukan obyek, sehingga harus didorong untuk berperan serta dalam setiap perencanaan dan pengambilan keputusan yang terkait dengan kegiatan mereka; (b) kondisi siswa sangat beragam, ditinjau dari kondisi fisik, kemampuan intelektual, sosial ekonomi, minat dan seterusnya. Oleh karena itu diperlukan wahana kegiatan yang beragam, sehingga setiap siswa memiliki wahana untuk berkembang secara optimal; (c) siswa hanya termotivasi belajar, jika mereka menyenangi apa yang diajarkan; dan (d) pengembangan potensi siswa tidak hanya menyangkut ranah kognitif, tetapi juga ranah afektif, dan psikomotor.
3. Manajemen personalia
Terdapat empat prinsip dasar manajemen personalia yaitu : (a) dalam mengembangkan sekolah, sumber daya manusia adalah komponen paling berharga; (b) sumber daya manusia akan berperan secara optimal jika dikelola dengan baik, sehingga mendukung tujuan institusional; (c) kultur dan suasana organisasi di sekolah, serta perilaku manajerial sekolah sangat berpengaruh terhadap pencapaian tujuan pengembangan sekolah; dan (d) manajemen personalia di sekolah pada prinsipnya mengupayakan agar setiap warga dapat bekerja sama dan saling mendukung untuk mencapai tujuan sekolah.Disamping faktor ketersediaan sumber daya manusia, hal yang amat penting dalam manajamen personalia adalah berkenaan penguasaan kompetensi dari para personil di sekolah. Oleh karena itu, upaya pengembangan kompetensi dari setiap personil sekolah menjadi mutlak diperlukan.
4. Manajemen keuangan
Manajemen keuangan di sekolah terutama berkenaan dengan kiat sekolah dalam menggali dana, kiat sekolah dalam mengelola dana, pengelolaan keuangan dikaitkan dengan program tahunan sekolah, cara mengadministrasikan dana sekolah, dan cara melakukan pengawasan, pengendalian serta pemeriksaan.Inti dari manajemen keuangan adalah pencapaian efisiensi dan efektivitas. Oleh karena itu, disamping mengupayakan ketersediaan dana yang memadai untuk kebutuhan pembangunan maupun kegiatan rutin operasional di sekolah, juga perlu diperhatikan faktor akuntabilitas dan transparansi setiap penggunaan keuangan baik yang bersumber pemerintah, masyarakat dan sumber-sumber lainnya.
5. Manajemen perawatan preventif sarana dan prasana sekolah
Manajemen perawatan preventif sarana dan prasana sekolah merupakan tindakan yang dilakukan secara periodik dan terencana untuk merawat fasilitas fisik, seperti gedung, mebeler, dan peralatan sekolah lainnya, dengan tujuan untuk meningkatkan kinerja, memperpanjang usia pakai, menurunkan biaya perbaikan dan menetapkan biaya efektif perawatan sarana dan pra sarana sekolah.Dalam manajemen ini perlu dibuat program perawatan preventif di sekolah dengan cara pembentukan tim pelaksana, membuat daftar sarana dan pra saran, menyiapkan jadwal kegiatan perawatan, menyiapkan lembar evaluasi untuk menilai hasil kerja perawatan pada masing-masing bagian dan memberikan penghargaan bagi mereka yang berhasil meningkatkan kinerja peralatan sekolah dalam rangka meningkatkan kesadaran merawat sarana dan prasarana sekolah.Sedangkan untuk pelaksanaannya dilakukan : pengarahan kepada tim pelaksana, mengupayakan pemantauan bulanan ke lokasi tempat sarana dan prasarana, menyebarluaskan informasi tentang program perawatan preventif untuk seluruh warga sekolah, dan membuat program lomba perawatan terhadap sarana dan fasilitas sekolah untuk memotivasi warga sekolah.

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357
F E AT U R E D A R T I C L E
The Effects of Personality,
Affectivity, and Work
Commitment on Motivation to
Improve Work Through Learning
Sharon S. Naquin, Elwood F. Holton III
This study examined the degree to which the dimensions from the Five-Factor
Model of personality, affectivity, and work commitment (including work
ethic, job involvement, affective commitment, and continuance commitment)
influenced motivation to improve work through learning. Data were obtained
from a nonrandom sample of 239 private-sector employees who were
participants of in-house training programs. The hypothesized causal relationships
were tested using structural equation modeling. Findings indicated
that these dispositional effects were significant antecedents of motivation to
improve work through learning. Specifically, 57 percent of the variance in
motivation to improve work through learning was explained by positive
affectivity, work commitment, and extraversion.
According to dispositional theorists, individuals possess relatively stable characteristics
that affect their attitudes and behavior (Davis-Blake and Pfeffer,
1989). However, until recently, most of the research on job attitudes has been
situational—referring, for example, to task characteristics, supervision, pay,
working conditions, organizational structure, workspace characteristics, and
promotional opportunities (compare Berger and Cummings, 1979; Fried
and Ferris, 1987; Hackman and Oldham, 1980; Herzberg, 1966; Locke, 1976;
Loher, Noe, Moeller, and Fitzgerald, 1985; Oldham and Fried, 1987). Little
has been done to study dispositional traits in the context of organizational
HRD. More specifically, there seem to be few empirical studies linking motivation
in learning contexts with personality and other individual characteristics.
Nor is there a model explaining dispositional influences on an employee’s
motivation to improve work through learning. A better understanding of these
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT QUARTERLY, vol. 13, no. 4, Winter 2002
Copyright © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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358 Naquin, Holton
differences and their impact on workplace learning would enable learning
professionals to tailor training interventions more effectively and improve
performance through learning.
Despite the limited number of such studies in HRD, dispositional research
has led to the conclusion that there is a conceptual relationship between disposition
and behavior. This dispositional research model, which is distinctly
different from situational models, undergirds this study. It depicts the basic
relationship between several constructs. Disposition as a variable of interest
includes an individual’s personality, which is made up of traits, affective (mood)
structure, and values. Personality influences attitudes. Attitudes, in turn, affect
motivation, which then leads to behavioral outcomes. In this model, situational
factors do influence attitudes, motivation, and behavior, but they act in
conjunction with dispositional factors.
Thus, the purpose of this study was to develop and test a model of dispositional
effects on motivation. More specifically, the research model incorporated
personality, affectivity, and work commitment as independent constructs
and motivation to improve work through learning as the dependent construct.
Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the research model.
Background of the Study
Evidence supporting the integration of personality, affectivity, work commitment,
and motivation to improve work through learning constructs into a
single research model came from a variety of research studies. This section
briefly outlines some of the background literature.
Motivation to Improve Work Through Learning. Previous research efforts
have focused on two types of motivation: motivation to learn or train and motivation
to transfer (compare Clark, Dobbins, and Ladd, 1993; Noe, 1986; Noe
and Schmidt, 1986; Hicks and Klimoski, 1987; Mathieu and Martineau, 1997;
Mathieu, Tannenbaum, and Salas, 1992; Seyler, Holton, Bates, Burnett, and
Carvalho, 1998; Warr and Bunce, 1995). However, if the desired outcome of
organizational training programs is to improve work outcomes, then using
motivation to learn or train as the dependent variable may be too limited. The
process of improving work through learning also involves an employee’s
willingness to transfer the knowledge acquired to improve work processes. It
is the combined motivational influences that will influence desired training
outcomes. Thus, this study employs a relatively new construct: motivation to
improve work through learning (MTIWL) (Baldwin, Ford, and Naquin, 2000;
Naquin and Holton, 2001). This construct posits that an individual’s MTIWL
is a function of motivation to train and motivation to transfer. Further, it should
more completely capture the motivational influences leading to improved work
outcomes. Thus, the MTIWL is potentially a more powerful motivational
construct because it incorporates both dimensions of motivation critical to
achieving HRD outcomes.
hrd13402.qxp 11/1/02 11:21 AM Page 358
Personality: The Five-Factor Model. According to the Five-Factor Model
(FFM), there are five broad categories at the top of the personality trait hierarchy:
neuroticism-emotional stability, extraversion, openness to experience,
agreeableness, and conscientiousness (Costa and McCrae, 1992). Considerable
research supports the relationship between personality and job performance
variables, training efficiency, academic performance, and motivation
(compare Barrick and Mount, 1991; Barrick, Stewart, Neubert, and Mount,
1998; Colquitt and Simmering, 1998; Costa and McCrae, 1995; Hogan,
Rybicki, Motowidlo, and Borman, 1998; Salgado, 1997). Researchers have
linked personality dimensions to a number of industrial and organizational
topics, including absenteeism (Mowday, Porter, and Steers, 1982), employee
reliability (Sackett and Harris, 1984), leadership (Ghiselli, 1971), organizational
climate (Schneider, 1985), employee satisfaction (Staw and Ross, 1985), work
motivation (Korman, 1976), and job scope. Kanfer (1990) strongly advocated
the use of this model to advance the current body of motivational research.
Affect: Positive and Negative Affectivity. Affectivity is an emotion-based
trait dimension (Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988) that creates a cognitive
bias through which individuals approach and understand experiences and may
affect how they experience and evaluate jobs (Levin and Stokes, 1989). A
prominent view of affectivity is that there are two independent dimensions of
it: positive (PA) and negative (NA) (Costa and McRae, 1980; Diener and
Emmons, 1984; Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, 1988). PA is the tendency to
experience positive emotional states, NA is the tendency to experience negative
ones ( Judge, Locke, and Durham, 1997; Watson and Clark, 1984).
PA levels have been shown to be associated with interpersonal relations
and achievement (George and Brief, 1992; Tellegen, 1985), engagement
(McFatter, 1994), learning speed (Masters, Barden, and Ford, 1979), expectations,
estimates of past successes, and self-assessments (Wright and Mischel,
1982). Individuals with higher NA levels tend to have higher levels of anxiety,
focus more on negative aspects of themselves and the world, and dwell on their
mistakes, disappointments, and shortcomings (Levin and Stokes, 1989). Similarly,
individuals scoring high on the neuroticism dimension are vulnerable to
stress, prone to feeling inferior, self-conscious, and uncomfortable around
others (Costa and McCrae, 1991). However, training programs are sometimes
highly interactive, requiring high energy levels. Thus, voluntary participation
in training initiatives and motivation to transfer among individuals who are
highly neurotic or high in NA would be less likely because self-confidence and
energy are required for successful completion of such programs.
The Role of Work Commitment. The suggestion that commitment plays
a key role in training motivation is not new (see Facteau, Dobbins, Russell,
Ladd, and Kudisch, 1995; Noe, 1986; Tannenbaum, Mathieu, Salas, and
Cannon-Bowers, 1991). Morrow (1983) surmised that work commitment is a
function of personal characteristics, including dispositional qualities, and presents
a facet design of work commitment that includes work ethic, career
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360 Naquin, Holton
commitment, organizational commitment (affective and continuance), and job
involvement (Morrow, 1993). Because work commitment is likely to influence
motivation in the workplace, her conceptualization of work commitment foci
provided a starting point for this analysis. Based on research discussed in the
following section, work commitment is hypothesized to mediate the relationship
between some of the predictor variables and motivation to improve work
through learning. Three constructs of Morrow’s (1993) conceptualization—
work ethic, organizational commitment, and job involvement—were
employed. Career commitment was not used, because as Blau (1985) noted,
career commitment is a particularly difficult construct to operationalize in
heterogeneous groups because it means different things to different employee
groups.
Work Ethic. Work ethic, also called the Protestant work ethic (PWE), has
been defined for “an individual as a value or belief concerning the place of
work in one’s life that either (a) serves as a conscious guide to conduct or
(b) is simply implied in manifested attitudes and behavior” (Siegel, 1983,
p. 28). According to Weber’s classic conceptualization of PWE, which
stemmed from Calvinistic and Quaker philosophies of individualism and
asceticism (Macoby, 1983), work is “performed as if it were an end in itself, a
calling” (Weber, 1958, p. 62). Individuals with a strong work ethic are
committed to the values of hard work and embrace the Calvinistic tradition
of frugality, hard work, conservatism, and success (Weber, 1958). However,
the culture today does not necessarily support the same conventions and
values as in earlier days. Work values constantly change and evolve, so the
notion that the work values of 1958 would not be applicable today is
consistent with historical trends. A redefinition of work values has occurred.
Bernstein describes contemporary employees as “inner-directed,” people
“who clearly place their personal wants and aspirations above those of their
employers” (1997, p. 221). Work schedules and business priorities are
secondary to self-fulfillment (Sinetar, 1980). So although the values of
previous generations may have been deeply rooted in nonleisure as the norm,
this is not the case in American society today. In light of the prevailing values,
cultures, and mores, it is possible for an individual to score high on the hard
work scale but low on nonleisure, asceticism, or independence. Compliance
with the norms and values of today’s society could lead an individual to
respond to the PWE instrument in a manner that would contradict the PWE
construct, which requires high scores on all four facets: hard work,
asceticism, independence, and nonleisure. Hard work appears to be the only
component of PWE that is applicable in today’s society (see Naquin and
Holton, 2001).
Organizational Commitment. Recent research efforts have focused on
three types of commitment: affective, continuance, and normative
commitment (Allen and Meyer, 1990; Meyer and Allen, 1984). Allen and
Meyer defined affective commitment as an “emotional attachment to the
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organization such that the strongly committed individual identifies with, is
involved in, and enjoys membership in, the organization” (1990, p. 2).
Continuance commitment is based on “the individual’s recognition of
the costs (or lost side bets) associated with discontinuing the activity”
(Allen and Meyer, 1990, p. 33). Normative commitment, however, is not
included in Morrow’s (1993) work commitment conceptualization, one of
the foundational premises of the present study, and was thus excluded
from it.
Job Involvement. Lodahl and Kejner (1965) defined job involvement as
the degree of daily absorption a worker experiences in work activity.
Job involvement leads individuals to exceed the normal job expectations
(Moorhead and Griffin, 1995) and is a key component in employee
motivation (Lawler, 1986). Brown (1996) confirmed a relationship between
job involvement and work ethic endorsement with growth need strength,
a facet of conscientiousness, concluding that motivation may be both
an antecedent and an outcome of job involvement. Clark (1990) found a
positive relationship between training motivation and job involvement, and
Hensey (1987) found that the effectiveness of training programs suffered
among workers who were less involved with their jobs.
The Research Model. Based on the research briefly discussed, the research
model shown in Figure 1 was developed. It shows the indicator variables (discussed
in the next section), latent variables, and hypothesized structural relationships.
It should be noted that this model does not capture all influences
on MTIWL; situational effects are excluded. Rather, it hypothesizes what are
believed to be key dispositional influences on MTIWL.
Method
This section describes the method used in this study.
Sample. Data were obtained from a nonrandom sample of 247 subjects
from a single private-sector health insurance organization. Listwise deletion for
missing data resulted in a usable sample size of 239. Respondents were participants
of in-house training programs and represented a wide range of years
of work experience and a wide range of job levels. Respondents’ average age
was 35.5 years (overall age range was 19 to 68; SD was 10.516), 28.5 percent,
or 68 of the respondents, were male and 71.5 percent, or 171, were female.
Procedure. Surveys were administered to respondents at the beginning of
in-house training programs. Participants were required to attend these classes,
and questionnaires were presented as part of the training program. Participants
were allowed to withdraw if they had objections to the study, but none
objected.
Instrumentation. In structural equation modeling, unidimensional latent
constructs are routinely represented by multiple scales, called indicator
variables. Thus, to measure MTIWL, scales measuring both an individual’s
motivation to train and motivation to transfer were necessary. Because it is
The Effects of Personality, Affectivity, and Work Commitment 361
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Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
PA
NA
Extraversion
Openness
Neuroticism
NEO-FFI
n
NEO-FFI
c
NEO-FFI
a
PANAS
pa
PANAS
na
NEO-FFI
e
NEO-FFI
o
Job
involvement
Affective
commitment
Continuance
commitment
Hard
work
Work
commitment
MTIWL
Motivation
to train
Performance
outcomes
Training
attitudes
Motivation to
transfer
Figure 1. Dispositional Model of MTIWL with All Indicator Variables
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The Effects of Personality, Affectivity, and Work Commitment 363
desirable to have at least three indicators for latent constructs, four scales were
selected to measure the motivation to improve work through learning construct.
Two seven-item scales from the Strategic Assessment of Readiness
for Training (START) instrument (Weinstein and others, 1994) were selected:
training attitudes and the motivation to train scale. In this study, coefficient
alpha reliabilities were .70 for both scales. The Learning Transfer Systems
Inventory (LTSI) (Holton, Bates, and Ruona, 2000), a sixty-eight-item instrument,
measures factors affecting learning transfer, including motivation. The
motivation to transfer scale (.83) and performance outcomes expectations
( .83) scale were selected. Drawing on expectancy theory, the second scale
was selected to include an outcome component of improving work through
motivation. In this study, coefficient alpha reliabilities were .85 for motivation
to transfer and .78 for performance outcome expectations.
The NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI), a sixty-item measure of
personality (Costa and McCrae, 1992), measured personality dimensions. Raw
scores were converted to t score values using gender-based national norms
(Costa and McCrae, 1991). Internal reliabilities for the NEO-FFI have been
reported as .86, .77, .73, .68, and .81 for neuroticism-emotional stability, extraversion,
openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, respectively (Costa
and McCrae, 1991).
The most widely used measure of PA and NA is the twenty-item Positive
and Negative Affectivity Schedule (PANAS) (Watson, Clark, and Tellegen,
1988). Subjects rate PA and NA according to their “general” or “average” feelings,
in order to assess trait affectivity rather than state affectivity. Watson,
Clark, and Tellegen reported internal consistency reliabilities for PA as .87 and
for NA as .88.
Blau and Ryan (1997) revealed a four-dimension construct—hard work,
nonleisure, asceticism, and independence—measured by an eighteen-item secular
work ethic instrument. It was selected because it appeared to contain the
most valid items empirically derived from seven different instruments. As
discussed earlier, only the hard work scale was used in this study. Coefficient
alpha reliability for hard work was .78.
Kanungo (1982) proposed a ten-item job involvement measure with items
derived from Lodahl and Kejner (1965), but it is psychometrically stronger
than the other scales (Blau, 1997) so it was selected for this study. Coefficient
alpha reliability was .71.
Because of its multidimensional structure, the Allen and Meyer (1990)
instrument is increasingly being used to measure organizational commitment.
This instrument consists of three eight-item scales: affective, continuance, and
normative commitment. The affective and continuance commitment scales
from this instrument were selected for use in this study. Coefficient alpha reliabilities
were .84 for affective commitment and .81 for continuance commitment
in this study.
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364 Naquin, Holton
Analysis. Structural equation model analysis was conducted with LISREL
8.3 ( Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996) to test the causal relationships between
variables in the hypothesized model. Input for estimation of the model was
provided by a covariance matrix prepared with PRELIS 2.3. Data analysis
was conducted in two stages in accordance with a procedure suggested by
Anderson and Gerbing (1988) and Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black (1998).
In the first stage, the adequacy of the measurement model was examined. The
initial analyses evaluated the loading of individual instrument items on instrument
scales being used as indicator variables. Scale scores were calculated and
used as indicators for the latent constructs. A second analysis evaluated the fit
of the measurement model made up of the scale scores and latent constructs.
Because the NEO and PANAS scales are so well established, these scales
were not included in this stage of analysis. Their established validity allowed
for the treatment of each of these scales as a single indicator for a corresponding
latent construct. As is common practice with single indicators, the error
variance was set to one, minus the reliability of the scale, times the variance of
the scale (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black, 1998). For the NEO-FFI, the
variance and reliability were obtained from the technical manual (Costa and
McRae, 1992), whereas the values used for the PANAS were calculated from
this sample.
The second step of the analysis required assessment of the structural
model describing the relationships among the latent constructs (Anderson and
Gerbing, 1988). Like the evaluation process for the measurement model, structural
model assessment involves examination of multiple fit indices. (For an
explanation of fit indices, see Hair, Anderson, Tatham, and Black, 1998.) In
addition, parameter estimates for each path and the statistical significance were
examined during this stage.
It is increasingly common for researchers to develop and evaluate alternative
models rather than simply examine the absolute fit of the hypothesized
model. Thus, at each step of the analysis the model was carefully examined for
possible modifications as well as overall fit. Each change suggested by weak
factor loadings, nonsignificant paths, or modification indices was carefully
evaluated for alternative theoretical support.
Results
This section presents the study’s results.
Measurement Model Analysis. The first stage of the measurement model
analysis was to examine the loadings of instrument items on each scale except
for the NEO-FFI and the PANAS. For space reasons this step will not be discussed
in detail, but full details are available from the authors.1 Briefly, confirmatory
factor analyses of scales led to deletion of only a few instrument items.
Resulting fit measures were considered adequate. Scale scores were then
calculated using the slightly revised scales.
hrd13402.qxp 11/1/02 11:21 AM Page 364
The second stage tested the loading of the scales on the designated latent
constructs. In this model, there were two constructs with multiple indicators:
work commitment and MTIWL. The initial fit for the model (see Figure 1) was
acceptable (2
(61) 163.62, GFI .92; AGFI .83; NFI .85; RMSEA .084;
SRMR .064; CFI .89). All paths were significant, so none were eliminated.
Thus, in the final measurement model four indicator variables were retained for
the dependent construct MTIWL and four were retained for work commitment.
Table 1 shows the correlation matrix for all scales.
Structural Model Analysis. The fit for the initial structural model (see
Figure 2) was not as strong as desired (2
(68) 169.88, GFI .91; AGFI .85;
NFI .84; RMSEA .079; SRMR .072; CFI .89). Several paths were
also nonsignificant (t 1.96), including from openness to motivation
to improve work through learning (t.80); from neuroticism to WCATT
(t .19); from NA to MTIWL (t 1.07); and from extraversion to MTIWL
(t 1.38). It was decided that three of the nonsignificant paths should
be eliminated. The path from extraversion to MTIWL was retained due to theoretical
support and previous research findings. Analysis of this model indicated
slightly improved fit (2
(47) 108.06, GFI .93, AGFI .88, NFI .86,
RMSEA .074, SRMR .072, CFI .91).
Figure 2 shows the final path model with standardized path coefficients.
Parameter estimates indicated that all but one path was statistically significant.
The t values ranged from 1.20 to 4.85. Although the path from extraversion to
MTIWL was not statistically significant (t 1.20), it was retained because
of research findings indicating its importance (Barrick and Mount, 1991).
In addition, deletion of this path did not result in a significant improvement in
the model fit. The remaining five paths were statistically significant (t 1.96).
Table 2 summarizes the effect size statistics and t values. Conscientiousness
and agreeableness explained 53 percent of the variance in work commitment.
Work commitment, extraversion, and PA explained 57 percent of the variance
in MTIWL. The standardized coefficients for the total effects on MTIWL show
that PA had the strongest influence ( .44), whereas conscientiousness
had the second strongest influence ( .21) even though it occurred indirectly
through work commitment. Extraversion ( .10) and agreeableness
(.10) had smaller effects, with agreeableness also operating through work
commitment. Conscientiousness had the strongest influence on work commitment
(.54), twice that of agreeableness (.27).
Discussion
MTIWL is a new construct devised to assess individuals’ motivation to train
and their motivation to transfer knowledge or skills acquired through training
initiatives to work settings. This is the first known use of this construct. Confirmatory
factor analysis showed that the four scales selected loaded on this
latent construct. The squared multiple correlations for all scales were good
The Effects of Personality, Affectivity, and Work Commitment 365
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Table 1. Correlation Matrix
Independent Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 Neuroticism —
2 Extraversion .16*
3 Openness .05 .48**
4 Agreeableness .25** .40** .34**
5 Conscientiousness .24** .33** .32** .42**
6 Job involvement .05 .20** .30** .27** .37**
7 Affective commitment .25** .26** .15* .28** .43** .55**
8 Continuance
commitment .14* .29* .29** .13 .13 .14* .06
9 Negative affectivity .48** .16* .01 .31** .18** .02 .19** .16*
10 Positive affectivity .40** .47** .35** .37** .46** .19** .31** .19** .37**
11 Hard work .04 .23** .23** .25** .36** .22** .27** .01 .04 .34**
12 Motivation to transfer .14* .37** .31** .27** .30** .24** .33** .14* .18** .47** .42**
13 Performance outcome
expectations .17** .32** .19** .30** .30** .34** .44** .23** .19** .46** .40** .54**
14 Attitudes toward
training .21** .24** .20** .24** .31** .24** .29** .15* .17** .43** .26 .59** .30**
15 Motivation to train .16* .27** .20** .20 .26** .05 .18** .12 .24 .43** .25** .48** .40** .51**
Note: *correlation is significant at the .05 level; **correlation is significant at the .01 level.
hrd13402.qxp 11/1/02 11:21 AM Page 366
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
PA
Extraversion
NEO-FFI
c
NEO-FFI
a
PANAS
pa
NEO-FFI
e
Job
involvement
Affective
commitment
Continuance
commitment
Hard
work
Work
commitment
MTIWL
Motivation
to train
Performance
outcomes
Training
attitudes
Motivation to
transfer
.59 (6.90)
.54 (4.47)
.27 (2.44)
.44 (4.85)
.10 (1.20)
.69 (9.24)
.67 (9.02)
.38 (3.98)
.69 (7.41) .21 (2.76) .48 (5.94)
.63 (8.57)
.77 (10.04)
Figure 2. Final Model with Standardized Path Coefficients and t Values
hrd13402.qxp 11/1/02 11:21 AM Page 367
368 Naquin, Holton
(motivation to transfer .60; motivation to train .48; performance outcome
expectations .45; attitudes toward training .40). Each of the separate
scales selected had evidence of initial content construct validity from previous
studies.
Four of the dispositional traits assessed in this study were found to be
antecedents of MTIWL, two directly and two indirectly through work commitment.
Extraversion and PA directly and positively influenced MTIWL,
whereas the effects of conscientiousness and agreeableness were mediated by
work commitment, which positively influenced the dependent construct. More
specifically, 57 percent of the variance in MTIWL was explained by PA, work
commitment, and extraversion, whereas 53 percent of the variance in the
mediator construct, work commitment, was explained by conscientiousness
and agreeableness. This indicates that these dispositional effects are, in fact,
important considerations in predicting MTIWL.
The significance of the path from PA to MTIWL, the strongest path found
in this study, supports previous research. George and Brief (1992) found that
achievement motivation, which is closely related to motivation, is associated
with PA. They later proposed a theory in which PA influences proximal and
distal motivation (George and Brief, 1996). The engagement component of PA
(McFatter, 1994) also seems to be directly associated with motivation.
Table 2. t Values and Regression Equations for Final Model
t Values
Path t Value
Conscientiousness to work commitment 4.47
Agreeableness to work commitment 2.41
Extraversion to MTIWL 1.20
PA to MTIWL 4.85
Work commitment to MTIWL 4.02
Regression Equations
WC 0.54*NEOCONSC 0.27*NEOAGREE, Errorvar. 0.47, R2 0.53
(0.12) (0.11)
4.47 2.44
MTIWL 0.38*WC 0.10*NEOEXTRA 0.44*PA, Errorvar. 0.43, R2 0.57
(0.09) (0.08) (0.09)
4.02 1.20 4.85
Effect Size Coefficients for Exogenous Variables and MTIWL (Standardized Total Effects)
PA .44
Conscientiousness .21
Extraversion .10
Agreeableness .10
hrd13402.qxp 11/1/02 11:21 AM Page 368
Individuals scoring high on the PA scale would be more likely to become
engaged in the training program, thereby increasing the likelihood of their success
in the program and subsequent transfer of training.
Wright and Mischel’s (1982) findings—relating to heightened expectations,
greater estimates of past successes, and more favorable self-assessments among
individuals with high PA—supports a direct link between PA and MTIWL. Individuals
with high PA, like highly extraverted individuals, may be more optimistic
about training and have a stronger belief in their ability to complete it
successfully. They may also have more confidence in their ability to improve
work situations as a result of the knowledge and skills they acquire through
training. Their optimism and positive self-assessments may also make them feel
more empowered to effect change in their job performance.
Conscientiousness was the second strongest predictor, mediated by
work commitment. Findings of this study on conscientiousness are consistent
with previous research that suggests a relationship between this personality
dimension and work commitment. Conscientiousness, according to Costa
and McCrae (1991), comprises facets such as competence, order, dutifulness,
achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation. These descriptors
are similar to those of the work ethic component of work commitment, which
includes an orientation toward hard work and achievement, dependability,
and persistence (Weber, 1958). Conscientiousness has also been found
to be associated with volitional variables such as hard work, perseverance,
and achievement orientation (Costa and McCrae, 1988a, 1988b; Digman and
Takemoto-Chock, 1981; Peabody and Goldberg, 1989), which are aspects of
work commitment.
These findings also support conscientiousness studies that are more closely
related to training-learning and motivation. For instance, studies in educational
settings have reported correlations between conscientiousness and educational
achievement (Digman and Takemoto-Chock, 1981; Smith, 1967) and
vocational achievement (Takemoto, 1979) in the .50 to .60 range (Barrick
and Mount, 1991). Barrick and Mount (1991) found conscientiousness to be
a significant predictor of training proficiency (r .23) across all occupational
groups studied. In addition, Mathieu and Martineau (1997) and Mathieu,
Martineau, and Tannenbaum (1993) found that achievement motivation
(a facet of conscientiousness) positively influenced training motivation. Finally,
Colquitt and Simmering (1998) found a positive correlation between motivation
to learn and conscientiousness.
The next strongest predictor in the model was agreeableness. However, the
relationship between agreeableness and work commitment found in this study
provides new information on this personality dimension because no other
studies were located that directly tested this relationship. An important characteristic
of individuals scoring high in agreeableness is willingness to assist
others (Costa and McCrae, 1991). When applied to employment situations,
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370 Naquin, Holton
the parallel to willingness to assist others may be that these individuals are willing
to assist the organization by improving work; thus, they would be more
committed to work.
Extraversion had the same effect size as agreeableness, even though the
path from extraversion to motivation was nonsignificant. Because prior theory
and research supported its influence on training outcomes, it was retained in
the model. Further research is needed to determine if it is, in fact, a significant
predictor. Logically, it would seem to be, because extraverts, somewhat like
individuals with high PA, tend to be optimistic, energetic, enthusiastic, and
actively seek both interpersonal relations and achievement (George and Brief,
1992). Each of these characteristics is an important component of motivation
and motivation to improve work through learning. These individuals may perceive
training events as enjoyable and may feel that successful completion of
the training program is likely and that they can effect change or improve their
work with the information and skills they acquire.
Somewhat unexpectedly, openness to experience was not a significant predictor
of the dependent variable, nor did it significantly influence work commitment.
In some ways, this contradicts previous research. For instance,
Barrick and Mount (1991) found openness correlated with training proficiency
(r .25). Others (Driskell, Hogan, Salas, and Hoskin, 1994; Gough, 1987;
McCrae, Costa, and Piedmont, 1992; Salgado, 1997) have also found a positive
relationship between openness to experience and learning. One explanation
may lie in the fact that the MTIWL construct included a transfer and
performance outcome component, unlike the more frequently assessed motivation
to learn construct. One facet of the openness to experience personality
dimension is intellectual curiosity, which often translates to “an active pursuit
of intellectual interests for their own sake” (Costa and McRae, 1991, p. 17).
Because the dependent construct was more work-focused than just learning
for the sake of learning, it may have created an outcome orientation element
within the construct rather than just a learning orientation.
Others have explored a related dispositional variable, goal orientation,
which refers to whether individuals view training situations as learning opportunities
(mastery orientation) or opportunities to achieve their goals (goal orientation)
(Colquitt and Simmering, 1998; Mathieu and Martineau, 1997). Had
the dependent variable been more learning-oriented (that is, learning for the
sake of learning) as opposed to being outcome-oriented (geared toward
the application of the training knowledge and skills attained), openness to
experience might have remained in the model.
The finding that neuroticism and NA were not related to MTIWL is somewhat
surprising. Although there was limited research directly linking these
constructs to training, the characteristics of individuals scoring high on
these scales would seem to suggest they would influence motivation. The
fact that they did not further supports George and Brief’s (1992, 1996) contention
that PA would be the strongest predictor.
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Implications
The findings suggest that motivation is significantly affected by dispositional
factors. Organizations whose performance depends on their employees’ willingness
to learn continually and use their learning to make changes in the
workplace must be concerned with the dispositional profile of those employees.
Therefore, organizations must be prepared to respond to the motivation
of current and potential employees. These findings suggest that each individual
has a dispositionally affected motivational profile for improving work
through learning based on four factors: PA, conscientiousness, extraversion,
and agreeableness. Leadership research indicates that the trait approach facilitates
the selection of leaders. It is applicable here as well. Viewed from a selection
perspective, organizations can determine the desired employee profile to
meet their needs. From a humanistic perspective, employers must consider
how to work with individuals who are not predisposed to be motivated to
improve work through learning. Careful consideration must be given to what
motivates employees who do not fit the profile found to be significant in this
study. The large contribution of these dispositional characteristics in predicting
motivation to improve work through learning suggests that HRD professionals
should attend more closely to the motivational levels of employees who
score low on these dispositional dimensions and develop and implement interventions
to heighten their pretraining motivation. Knowledge of the dispositional
profiles of employees, coupled with an awareness of the optimum
motivational profile, should enable employers to accomplish this task more
easily.
There are, of course, ethical issues for organizations to consider as they
become aware of the dispositional profile of both employees and candidates
for employment. For instance, the accuracy of the information is at risk if selfratings
alone are relied on. Decisions made on the basis of inaccurate information
could potentially negatively affect the employee or the organization
or both. And disclosure of such information, either inside or outside of the
organization—whether the information is accurate or not—brings up
the issue of the employee’s right to privacy. Similarly, an organization’s ability
to control employee behavior through such knowledge could also present an
ethical challenge. Despite these risks and ethical dilemmas, the ability to
enhance employee and organizational effectiveness through interventions
developed with this knowledge warrants consideration of employee dispositional
profiles.
Dispositional characteristics have not been emphasized in previous HRD
studies, which have tended to rely more heavily on situational variables. (As
Figure 1 indicates, situational factors do influence attitudes, motivation, and
behavior, but they act in conjunction with dispositional factors.) However,
these findings highlight the need for HRD researchers to include dispositional
and individual difference factors in more research efforts. Because the effects
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372 Naquin, Holton
of dispositions were so powerful, models of training in the workplace should
control for them. Failure to include dispositional effects in such models
may result in an overestimation of situational effects and could lead organizational
researchers down the wrong path in their attempts to enhance training
outcomes.
Further research should aim at expanding or refining the dependent construct
as well. Because this is the first known study to examine MTIWL, it
should be tested on other sample populations, both in single organizations and
across several organizations. Other scales should also be investigated to see if
they should be considered as possible indicators of this construct. Researchers
should also examine the convergent and divergent validity of the construct
with other variables in its nomological net, or use only attitudes toward training
and motivation to train scales to determine if the same results are observed.
Finally, researchers should examine its criterion validity by examining the relationship
between this construct and performance.
Several possible limitations of this research should be mentioned. First,
because the study is based on self-report data and the surveys were administered
at the beginning of in-house training programs, there is the possibility
of common method variance, although examination of the correlation
matrix suggests this is not a significant problem. For example, correlations
between the predictor variables and motivation to train ranged from –.24 to
.48, and with motivation to transfer they ranged from –.18 to .47. Second,
data for this study came from a nonrandom sample, thereby limiting the generalizability
of the findings. Respondents worked for a single company and
there was an overrepresentation of females (that is, only 28.5 percent of
respondents were male). Third, a nonexperimental cross-sectional research
design was used in this study. Caution is necessary when using even the most
sophisticated statistical techniques available for making causal inferences.
Nevertheless, the theoretical underpinnings of the model development and
testing provide credibility for the study’s results. Fourth, even though respondents
were assured of anonymity and confidentiality, an element of social
desirability could be present in the data. Attempts were made, however, to
ameliorate these effects by providing a script of instructions and an assurance
of confidentiality. Fifth, research in this area is clearly in its exploratory
phases, so the theoretical foundations and causal models need further work.
In particular, the model modifications made in this study will clearly need
cross-validation. Despite these limitations, this research makes valuable
contributions in applying existing theory and research methods to a
new construct domain.
Note
1. Please direct any correspondence to the authors at naquin1@bellsouth.net, (225) 578-
2456, or fax (225) 578-5755.
hrd13402.qxp 11/1/02 11:21 AM Page 372
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Sharon S. Naquin is executive director of the Public Management Program and assistant
professor of human resource development at the School of Human Resource Education &
Workforce Development, Louisiana State University.
Elwood F. Holton III is professor of human resource development at the School of
Human Resource Education & Workforce Development, Louisiana State University.
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